TRANSLATING THE OLD TESTAMENT II ⁽¹⁾

[(Text-Base: standard Hebrew text (MT) or Old Greek Translation (LXX)?

(Again some examples from Genesis (Gen. 18,2; 22,5: 24, 26-27.48-52)]

Mario Cimosa - Pontifical Salesian University - Rome (Italy)

1. Preliminary methodological introduction

Today it is impossible to undertake a translation of the Old Testament especially in the Orthodox majority countries and/or situations, without taking into account the Septuagint and its various daughter translations.

But the problem has a characteristic which is still more general and it could be stated in the following terms: The LXX as alternative to the Hebrew Bible?. ⁽²⁾

But I have already treated this problem previously⁽³⁾. In this short paper instead I propose to compare some texts of Genesis where the vocabulary "adoration" / proskunei/n (Gen. 18:2; 22:5; 24: 26-27.48.52) is present. I shall compare the MT with the LXX in order to make a reflection on the differences that exist between these two texts: in order to understand the Greek variations that are "semantically relevants", the interpretative work or the technique of translation used by the Alessandrinian translators of Genesis. On this line it is necessary to keep in mind a modern translation which intends to privilege the LXX and to plan foot-notes indicating the variation of the MT⁽⁴⁾. The motives for the diversity of text can be many: a different Vorlage (a thing that cannot be excluded a priori!), oversight of the translators, a different theological interpretation and - in some cases - simply a question of the technique of translation.

My attention is focused on a work, given the renewed interest in this area of problems in the UBS, because of its implications for traditional churches who wish to translate the Septuagint rather than the MT: I wish to bring to your notice an exemplar of some texts in Genesis (MT and LXX) as should be translated in modern languages.

The method I follow is: firstly I present the MT, with a translation of it; secondly the LXX text with my literal translation. Both are followed by a short commentary highlighting the practical consequences that follow from the choice the translator makes of either MT or LXX. If there is still an alternative, I shall also propose that.

2. Some modern translations in current language

Most probably the Alexandrinian translators knew already some techniques of translation which allowed them to transfer a text from the language or from the original culture to that of the language or culture into which they were translating. For these problems of translation, connected already with the Greek translation of the LXX, I consider it interesting to make a comparison with the latest edition of at least four authoritative translations in current language on the basis of "dynamic equivalence" that are already existing and the recent ones: TEV, DHH, GN, FC, TILC⁽⁵⁾, for describing the existing reference or not to the old translation of the LXX and eventually offer some new proposals for the translators⁽⁶⁾. Of course I shall also keep in mind the proposals suggested by the Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project of the UBS for translators.

3. Some "semantically relevant" texts in the passage from MT to the LXX

A) Gen 18: 2

a) TM ~yvin"a] hv'l{v. hNEhiw> ar>Y:w: wyn"y[e aF'YIw: lh,aoh' xt;P,mi ~t'ar'q.li #r'Y"w: ar>Y:w: wyl'[' ~ybiC'nI `hc'r>a' WxT;v.YIw:

NRS   He looked up and saw three men standing near him. When he saw them, he ran fremo the tent entrance to meet them, and bowed down to the ground.

The same construction is found in Gen. 19:1 with the only addition of tw/| prosw,pw| / "with face" before evpi. th.n gh/n / "till to the ground". It is for the first time that in Genesis the term WxT;v.YIw appears with the Greek translation of proseku,nhsen. The two terms refer to the greeting with which a guest is given welcome. The text says that Abraham, as soon as he saw them, ran to meet them and prostrated himself hc'r>a / evpi. th.n gh/n / "till to the ground". This gesture which literally connects the two chapters demonstrates the respect that one has in front of important personalities, but for an attentive reader who also takes into consideration these two expressions evpi. th.n gh/n and tw/| prosw,pw|, this text has a more profound significance. Of the 171 times that histahawah appears in the OT⁽⁸⁾, 164 occurrencies in the LXX it is translated with proskunei/n⁽⁹⁾.

This verb was well chosen by Genesis to render the Hebrew verb histahawah which means to "make oneself to fall down"; hence "bow down" as well as "worship". The verb is used for worshipping as well as for prostrating oneself before superiors. This verb becomes the standard equivalent for histahawah throughout the entire LXX. Here it is used in the sense of "worship" since it is modified by evpi. th.n gh/n / "on the ground." ⁽¹⁰⁾ This Greek verb is one of the most important words used in the context of prayer and expresses, besides the external attitude, also the mental attitude, that interior attitude of prayer⁽¹¹⁾. It is evident that the context always contributes to give emphasis on the significance of cult. In the NT the verb proskunei/n, together with other verbs, obviously with different shades of meaning as euvsebei/n, leitourgei/n, latreu,ein, se,bomai, ka,mptw gonu,, gonupetein, sebazomai, is used in the English sense of "worship"⁽¹²⁾.

d) Modern translations

Besides, W. D. Reburn, in his Handbook for Translators of the USB⁽¹³⁾, which takes into consideration, as other Helps for Translator, fundamentally of the Hebrew text besides that of the HOTTP⁽¹⁴⁾ and of other modern translations, above all RSV and TEV, evidences above all the profane aspect of "bowing down". He observes that the gesture describes Abraham as greeting the strangers by bowing down on the ground before them. And here, as the next verse shows, its purpose is to respect or recognize the superior rank of the visitors, not to worship them. It is "the Eastern mode of respectful salutation" (Driver). He suggests to translators to keep in mind the languages in which such a greeting gesture is unknown, and to say, for example, "Abraham bowed himself to the ground to show that he accepted them"⁽¹⁵⁾, or "he bowed right down as a sign of respect…", or "he knelt and touched his forehead to the ground to welcome them". They are undoubtedly valid suggestions which allow to explicit, for cultural reasons, information implicit in the original text which here is considered that of "masoretic". Ad what if one were to keep in mind the Greek text as original and therefore as point of departure?

Certainly all the modern translations, which I have reported above closer to the MT, translate keeping in mind the meaning in profane ambient of the verb as "bowing down", made as an act of respect⁽¹⁶⁾, without having any theological connotation. I hold instead, as it appears to me from the context and as I have demonstrated elsewhere⁽¹⁷⁾, that in this chapter and in Gen. 22 and Gen. 24, which I intend to take as examples successively, there exists, especially in the Greek translation, a more theological significance.

e) For translators

For those who are involved in translating into modern languages and want to take the LXX as basic text, must keep in mind the double shades of meaning which the Greek verb proskunei/n / "to prostrate oneself and adore" could have and could be rendered in a modern language in the following way:

"he prostrated himself with face down to the earth in an attitude of adoration", specifying in the note that the MT simply indicates the attitude of prostrating oneself.

B) Gen. 22:5

Abraham climbs up the mountain Moria to sacrifice Isaac and adore the Lord. The idea of sacrifice is connected with that of adoration. It is easy to notice that the Hebrew has *hãwãh + šûb in the coortative form (plural), while the Greek reproduces the first with a participle (aorist plural) and has the volitive form in the second (conjunctive aorist). Kilian⁽¹⁸⁾ affirms that *hãwãh signifies "to prostrate oneself" or, perhaps better, it has the etymological meaning of "rendering homage to God". Hence with the expression "to go for *hãwãh" it is better to intend the whole act of thanksgiving, including the offering of sacrifice, and not simply the gesture of prostrating, because the whole action of cult tends to *hãwãh. The relation between the two phrases is expressed by an aorist participle + a future tense, «thus having worshipped we intend to return to you». The Targum of Gen. 22 comments the versicle with a beautiful prayer of Abraham which is on this same line⁽¹⁹⁾.

We have here the same construction of Gen. 18:2 which we have just analyzed. As we have said, the Hebrew verb histahawah means «to bow down». Sometimes it is used, and the context helps us to understand, especially when it has clearly God as object, as to mean "praise", "pray to", "worship". In this context the verbe means making a sacrifice and therefore also only keeping in mind the Hebrew text we may translate "and offer a sacrifice to God". Here the deity is presupposed as the object of the prostration⁽²⁰⁾.

Reyburn has suggested a model translation of this verse: "Then Abraham said to his young men, 'My boy and I will go over there and offer a sacrifice to God, and then we will come back to you. So stay here with the donkey until we return'".

The verb proskunei/n used in the Greek indicates in general the gesture of prostration and in religious language it is used for rendering cult to the divinity and, as it is the case here, indicates without any doubt the gesture of adoration.

d) Modern Translations

TEV Then he said to the servants, "stay here with the donkey, The boy and I will go over there and worship, and then we will come back to you.

DHH Entonces les dijo a sus siervos: - Quédense aquí con el asno. El muchacho y yo seguiremos adelante, adoraremos a Dios, y luego regresaremos

GN Da sagte er zu den Knechten: *bleibt hier mit dem Esel! Ich gehe mit dem Jungen dort hinauf, um mich vor Gott niederzuwerfen; dann kommen wir wieder zurück+.

FC Il dit alors aux deux serviteurs: - Restez ici avec l'âne. L'enfant et moi nous irons là-haut pour adorer Dieu, puis nous reviendrons ici.

TILC Allora disse ai suoi servitori: *Rimanete qui con l'asino. Io e il ragazzo andremo là per adorare Dio. Poi torneremo+.

All the modern translations reported above manifest the meaning of adoration. GN is less explicit but when it says that prostration (niederwerfen) takes place in front of God (vor Gott), it also seems to refer to a gesture of cult of adoration.

e) For translators

The proposal in this case, for those who start from the LXX, can be formulated as follows: "and after having prostrated himself in adoration…". Perhaps it is too much to say "and offer a sacrifice to God". Even if a translation made with the criterion of "equivalent dynamics" would permit it and would impede the vagueness, at least in the English language of the term "worship".

C) Gen. 24: 26-27

c) Commentary

As it occurs in Gen. 24: 48 and 52, also here the protagonist is Eliezer who goes in search of a wife for Isaac; he invokes Jhwh with a splendid prayer. But before starting the prayer, he adores God and then our verb is always tied to qãdad and to bãrak and the prostration is followed by a prayer of praise and of thanksgiving: "Blessed be the Lord, God of my master Abraham, who has not stopped being good and faithful towards him. He has guided my steps towards the relatives of my master" (Gen. 24:27).

The NRS translates the Hebrew as "the man bowed his head and worshipped the LORD"; hence renders the verb as "bowed", as a bowing of the head. The word for bow used here is always followed by a verb translated "worshiped". But also "worship" translates a word meaning "to bow down to the ground", "to prostrate oneself", but when the LORD is mentioned the word has the significance of worship. In this context the servant thanks the Lord for which it could be translated as "bowed down and thanked the LORD".

The gesture of *hãwãh is both the reply of Eliezer in front of the Lord as well as at the granting of his prayer; it is, basically, a gesture of thanksgiving. Here and in the v. 48 the translator uses euvdokh,saj + the verb proskunei/n i.e. "being pleased, content, he worshipped". He adds a new element to the story. At the moment in which the request for a spouse has been favorably accepted, before expressing a prayer of thanksgiving, he performs an act of cult. It is this particular verb euvdokh,saj which in both the texts (here and in v. 48) that allows the servant to say: "I am content because God euvo,dwken has rendered content". In the Hebrew the second verb is quite different in both the cases (the root nhh either in Qal or Hi.). The verb proseku,nhsen is modified by an unarticulated dative kuri,w| /«to the Lord». A recensionist (possibly hex.) has added tw so as to represent the preposition l^{e (21)}.

Besides the v. 27, continuing from the v. 26 (where there is proseku,nhsen), finds itself in the context of that verb, not only but also develops the richness of its significance, in as much as the servant blesses the Lord. The blessing is a continuation of the gesture of adoration. With the words of blessing the servant expresses verbally what he has done with his gesture of adoration.

d) Modern Translations

TEV Then the man knelt down and worshipped the LORD. He said, "Praise the LORD, the God of my master Abraham, who has faithfully kept his promise to my master. The LORD has led me straight to my master's relatives."

DHH Entonces el siervo se arrodilló y adoró al Señor, diciendo: "(Bendito sea el Señor, el Dios de mi amoAbraham, pues ha sido fiel y bondadoso con mi amo, y me ha dirigido en el camino a la casa de sus parientes!"

GN Da warf sich der Verwalter Abrahams vor dem HERRN nieder und betete: *Dank sei dir, HERR, du Gott meines herrn Abraham! Du hast ihm deine Güte und Treue Bewahrt und hast mich geradewegs zu den Verwandten meines Herrn geführt+.

FC L'homme remercia le Seigneur en s'inclinant jusqu'à terre; il dit: - Merci au Seigneur, le Dieu de mon maîtreAbraham,qui a manifesté une si réelle bontè envers mon maître: durant ce voyage le Seigneur m'a conduit directement chez des parents de mon maître.

TILC Allora quell'uomo si inginocchiò e adorò il Signore. Disse: *Benedetto sia il Signore, Dio del mio padrone Abramo, che non ha smesso di essere buono e fedele verso di lui. Ha guidato i miei passi dai parenti del mio padrone+.

The version TEV translates: "the man knelt down and worshipped the LORD". Almost in the same way also the TILC and the DHH translate. The GN instead renders as follows: "Da warf sich der Verwalter Abrahams vor dem HERRN nieder und betete...". Perhaps the FC is preferable which renders it as: "L'homme remercia le Seigneur en s'inclinant jusqu'à terre".

e) For translators

The beginning of v. 26 could be translated: "then the man consented (or was well-pleasing), worshiped the LORD and said..." and the beginning of v. 27 as "I give thanks to the Lord…".

D) Gen. 24: 48

c) Commentary

For the word-play similar to that in vv. 26-27, using euvdokh,saj... euvo,dwse,n (euvo,dwken in v. 27) to translate ynIx;n>h … dQoa,w" see comment ad loc. Let us notice that here he uses the aorist, not the perfect as in v. 27⁽²²⁾.

For the rest see the commentary vv. 26-27.

d) Modern Translations

"Then I consented (or was well-pleasing), I worshiped the LORD and said..." and v. 27: "I give thanks to the Lord...".

E) Gen. 24: 52

The above observations are applicable also to vv. 26-27.48. The servant's act of worship is to give thanks to the Lord, as in v.26.

d) Modern Translations

It could be translated: "... he prostrated himself to the ground in front of the Lord and rendered him thanks …".

3. Conclusions

We can draw some conclusions from the way of translating into Greek operated by the LXX with the verb proskunei/n the Hebrew histahawah. Already in the classical Greek (from Ipponatte to the Tragedies) the verb has the concrete meaning of a gesture of reverence towards the divinity. Initially this gesture consisted of a kiss which in the primitive popular religion was given to the "mother earth" and to the ctonic divinities with the complete prostration of the body. From the simple -kunein one passes on to the composed form which always gains ground because of the dynamic value of the preposition proj which adds new possibilities in the sense of a further deepening, to the bodily gesture of a simple kiss. From kissing to kneeling down, to throwing oneself with face to the ground, prostrating oneself profoundly. From here it extends further as a gesture of adoration also towards celestial divinities. In the classical Greek the verb has this significance of adoration rendered to a divinity. Erodoto marveled at the fact that the oriental people used it also for greeting each other. The term is often specified by some attribute when it is used to express the idea of adoration of God, as it is the case in the texts examined above, where at times some other words is added: qadad / ku,ptein / "to prostrate oneself on the ground with his face down" or hc'r>a; / evpi. th.n gh/n / "on the ground"; or hw"hyl / kuri,w| / "in front of the Lord". The sense of adoration as an attitude of prayer is evident. The study of this vocabulary in the context of adoration, specially in the LXX, is important because while it shows the progress of revelation also on the level of the idea of prayer, helps us to understand how it has reached to the actual use of "prostrating oneself", of "bowing down deeply" in the liturgy, especially the oriental one.⁽²³⁾

BIBLIOGRAFIA

CIMOSA M., Il vocabolario di preghiera nel Pentateuco dei LXX, LAS, Roma 1985.

CIMOSA M. Guida allo studio della Bibbia Greca (LXX), Società Biblica, Roma 1995.

CIMOSA M., Da quale testo tradurre nelle lingue moderne l'Antico Testamento (TM o LXX). Alcuni esempi dal profeta Amos, in Salesianum 59 (1997) 439-458.

CIMOSA M., Observations on the Greek Translation of the Book of Zechariah, in IX Congress of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, Scholars Press, Atlanta Georgia 1997, pp. 91-108.

CIMOSA M., Translating the Old Testament, in Proceedings of Interpretation of the Bible, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield 1998, pp. 1341-1358.

JEPPESEN K., Biblia Hebraica - Et Septuaginta. A Response to Mogens Müller, in Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 10, 2 (1996) 271-281.

JINBACHIAN M., Quand la Bible était traduite en grec et en latin. L' exemple présenté par d'anciennes traductions de la Bible, in Cahiers de traduction biblique 31 (1999) 7-12.

JOBES K.H., Distinguish the Meaning of Greek Verbs in the Semantic Domain for Worship, in Filología Neotestamentaria 4 (1991) pp. 183-192.

HARL M., La Bible d'Alexandrie. 1. La Genèse, Cerf, Paris 1986.

MÜLLER M., The First Bible Of The Church. A Plea for the Septuagint, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield 1996.

REYBURN W.D. - FRY E.McG. (ed.), A Handbook on Genesis, UBS, NY 1998.

WEVERS J.W,, LXX. Notes ont he Greek Text of Genesis, Scholars Press, Atlanta, Georgia 1993.

1. Regarding this question I made my first research and presented it on occasion of the International Symposium on the Interpretation of the Bible in Ljubljana-Slovenia. Cf. Translating the Old Testament, in Proceedings of Interpretation of the Bible, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield 1998, pp. 1341-1358.

2. Cf. M. MÜLLER, The First Bible of the Church. A Plea for the Septuagint, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield 1996, p. 113. I do not know if all of you are aware of the discussion that followed after the publication of this book, especially among the scholars of Scandinavia. For example, K. JEPPESEN, Biblia Hebraica - Et Septuaginta. A Response to Mogens Müller, in Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 10, 2 (1996) 271-281. While agreeing with the thesis of Müller, that the Greek text should play as important a role in biblical theology as does the Hebrew text (Biblia Hebraica et Septuaginta), Jeppesen replies negatively to the hypothesis that the Septuagint ought to be the text translated in an authorized Christian version of the Old Testament (Biblia Hebraica - and Septuaginta).

3. Cf. M. CIMOSA, Guida allo studio della Bibbia Greca (LXX), Società Biblica, Roma 1995, p. 14. I have published another study entitled: Da quale testo tradurre nelle lingue moderne l'Antico Testamento (TM o LXX). Alcuni esempi dal profeta Amos, in Salesianum 59 (1997) 439-458. Besides these, I have conducted similar type of research on Zaccaria, Observations on the Greek Translation of the Book of Zechariah, in IX Congress of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, Scholars Press, Atlanta Georgia 1997, pp. 91-108; and finally, on the Canticle of Canticles (which will be published soon in the Miscellaneous for F.Vattioni entitled, LXX Dictionary Entries on the Song of Songs).

4. A first approach to these texts from the point of view of the vocabulary of prayer in the Pentateuch of the LXX I have already made; cf. M.CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera nel Pentateuco dei LXX, LAS, Roma 1985.

5. TEV = Today's English Version, New York 1966.1971.1976.1992.
DHH = Dios habla hoy, Nueva York 1979.1994.1996.
GN = Die Gute Nachricht, Stuttgart 1982.1997.
FC = La Bible en Français Courant, Paris 1982.1985.1991.
TILC = Traduzione Interconfessionale in Lingua Corrente, Torino 1985.
For a presentation of the criteria and method of these translations, cf., among other studies,
M.CIMOSA, Alcune traduzioni recenti della Bibbia in Lingua Corrente, in Salesianum 47 (1985) 809-820.

6. Cf. the article of M.JINBACHIAN, Quand la Bible était traduite en grec et en latin. L' exemple présenté par d'anciennes traductions de la Bible, in Cahiers de traduction biblique 31 (1999) 7-12.

7. J.W.WEVERS, LXX. Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis, Scholars Press, Atlanta Georgia 1993, p. 245, n.4 holds that hardly as Harl "au dessus de lui", taking evpa,nw literally in the sense of "above". But Harl justifies his choice with the spatial interpretation that is given to the adverb, for example, Origene, Hom. Gen. IV, 2.5, by seeing in the three men God who appears to Abraham, La Bible d'Alexandrie. 1. La Genèse, Cerf, Paris 1986, pp. 173-174.

8. For the meaning of hishtahawah in the Semitic languages, cf. CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera (n.4), pp. 62-65 and the bibliography cited there.

9. For the meaning of proskunei/n in the profane Greek literature, cf. CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera (n.4), pp. 65-66 and the bibliography cited there.

10. J.W.WEVERS, LXX. Notes ont he Greek Text of Genesis, Scholars Press, Atlanta Georgia 1993, p. 245.

11. Cf. CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera (n.4), pp. 53-55.

12. Cf. K.H. JOBES, Distinguish the Meaning of Greek Verbs in the Semantic Domain for Worship, in Filología Neotestamentaria 4 (1991) pp. 183-192 (esp. 186-188).

13. W.D. REYBURN - E.McG. FRY (ed.), A Handbook on Genesis, UBS, NY 1998.

14. HOTTP: Hebrew Old Testament Text Project.

15. REYBURN, A Handbook on Genesis (n.13), p. 386.

16. In Gen cf. also 23,7.12; 27,29; 33,3.6.7; 37,7.9.10; 42,6; 43, 26.28; 47,31; 48,12; 49,8.

17. Cf. CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera (n.4), pp. 55-57.

18. R. KILIAN, Isaak Opferung, SBS 44, Stuttgart 1970, p. 22.

19. Cf. CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera (n.4), p. 56 e n. 14.

20. Cf. also WEVERS, LXX. Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis (n.10), p. 319.

21. WEVERS, LXX. Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis (n.10) , p. 355.

22. WEVERS, LXX. Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis (n.10), p. 366.

23. For a more accurate study of PROSKUNEIN in the Pentateuch of the LXX, in the classical Greek and Hellenistic and of their equivalents in the Semitic languages please refer to the monographic study: M.CIMOSA, Il vocabolario di preghiera nel Pentateuco dei LXX, LAS, Roma 1985, pp. 53-68.